Modern Steam Engines

Critics of electric mobility are increasingly questioning the environmental compatibility and sustainability of alternative energies. Many maintain that automotive electric drives represent a compromise between zero-emission driving and environmentally harmful technology. Conventional lithium-ion or metal-hydride batteries are neither sustainable nor environmentally benign — not in production, not in use, and not in recycling — even if marketing suggests clean “e-mobility.”

nanoFlowcell Holdings is likewise often asked about the sustainability and environmental compatibility of nanoFlowcell technology and the bi-ION® electrolytes. Both the nanoFlowcell unit itself and the bi-ION electrolyte solutions required to power it are produced in an environmentally compatible manner from sustainable raw materials. In operation, too, nanoFlowcell technology is completely non-toxic and harmless to health. bi-ION, which consists of a slightly saline aqueous solution (organic and mineral salts dissolved in water) plus the actual energy carriers (electrolytes), is similarly environmentally friendly in both use and recycling.

A reaction — an ion exchange — takes place between the positively and negatively charged electrolyte solutions. The chemical energy contained in bi-ION® is thus released as electricity, which then drives the electric motors. This continues as long as the electrolytes are pumped past the membrane and react. In the case of the nanoFlowcell-driven QUANTiNO, one tank of electrolyte liquid is sufficient for more than 1,000 kilometres. Once depleted, the tank must be refilled.

What “waste products” are generated by a nanoFlowcell-driven electric vehicle? In a conventional internal combustion engine, the combustion of fossil fuels (petrol or diesel) produces hazardous exhaust gases — primarily carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide — which many researchers identify as causes of climate change. However, the only emissions from a nanoFlowcell vehicle during driving consist — much like with a hydrogen-powered vehicle — almost entirely of water.

After ion exchange in the nanoFlowcell, the chemical composition of the bi-ION® electrolyte solution remains virtually unchanged. It becomes non-reactive and is thus considered “spent,” since it cannot be recharged. For mobile applications of nanoFlowcell technology such as electric vehicles, the chosen solution is to microscopically vaporise and release the consumed electrolyte while driving. At speeds above 80 km/h, the holding tank for the spent electrolyte liquid is emptied via ultra-fine spray nozzles driven by a generator powered by the drive system. The electrolytes and salts are filtered mechanically in advance. The now cleanly filtered water is released as cold water vapour (a micro-fine mist) in an entirely environmentally compatible manner. The filter is replaced at approximately 10,000 km intervals, and its disposal is equally environmentally benign.

The advantage of this technical solution is that the vehicle’s tank empties while driving as usual and can be refilled conveniently and quickly — without needing to pump out beforehand.

An alternative approach, marginally more complex, would be to collect the “spent” electrolyte solution in a separate tank and send it for recycling. This solution is envisioned for stationary nanoFlowcell applications.

We assess water vapour emissions in terms of environmental relevance and ask how much additional water vapour might result from widespread adoption of nanoFlowcell-driven vehicles compared with conventional propulsion technologies, and whether these H₂O emissions could exert a negative environmental effect.

The greenhouse effect becomes problematic only when human intervention disturbs the natural cycle. When, in addition to naturally occurring greenhouse gases, humans release extra greenhouse gases by burning fossil fuels, the heating of Earth’s atmosphere is amplified.

As part of the biosphere, humans inevitably influence their environment—and thus the climate system—by their existence. Since the Stone Age, population growth, settlement formation, and the shift to agriculture and livestock farming have already affected climate. Nearly half of Earth’s original forests and woodlands have been cleared for agriculture. Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems

Water vapour is the principal absorber of heat radiation in the atmosphere. It constitutes, on average, about 0.3 % by mass of the atmosphere, while carbon dioxide accounts for roughly 0.038 %. Thus, by mass, water vapour comprises about 80 % of all greenhouse gases (approximately 90 % by volume). Its share of the greenhouse effect is estimated between 36 % and 66 %, making it the most critical greenhouse gas for sustaining Earth’s surface temperature.

Beyond natural water vapour emissions, the greatest anthropogenic source is artificial irrigation (IPCC). Nevertheless, extensive deforestation drastically reduces the evapotranspiration that would otherwise release significant quantities of water vapour.

The anthropogenic contribution to water vapour is typically not included in climate models because, relative to natural emissions via evaporation, it’s estimated to contribute only about 0.005 % — hence it is considered negligible. In contrast, anthropogenic CO₂ emissions, constituting roughly 4 % of greenhouse gas additions, exert a significant influence on the natural atmospheric cycle. Emissionen von Wasserstofffahrzeugen